Table 2 Prevalence and severity of youth criminogenic risk factors among violent offenders and nonviolent offenders
From: Constellations of youth criminogenic factors associated with young adult violent criminal behavior
| Domain 1. history of criminal behavior | Min–max | Violent offenders (n = 146) | Nonviolent offenders (n = 241) | χ2 | p | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | ||||
| Property offense, ever | 0–1 | 143 | 2.8 | n/a | 97.2 | 3 | 240 | 25.8 | n/a | 74.2 | 1 | 38.16 | < .001 |
| Violent offense, ever | 0–1 | 142 | 1.4 | n/a | 98.6 | 4 | 240 | 25.8 | n/a | 74.2 | 1 | 57.75 | < .001 |
| Sexual offense, ever | 0–1 | 142 | 88.7 | n/a | 11.3 | 4 | 238 | 95.8 | n/a | 4.2 | 3 | 15.05 | .002 |
| Arson, ever | 0–1 | 145 | 86.9 | n/a | 13.1 | 1 | 239 | 92.5 | n/a | 7.5 | 2 | 2.61 | .106 |
| Offenses: mainly solo (0) or in a group (1) | 0–1 | 124 | 21.8 | n/a | 78.2 | 26 | 223 | 37.2 | n/a | 62.8 | 17 | 8.08 | .004 |
| Min–max | n | Mean (sd) | n missing | Min–max | n | Mean (sd) | n missing | F | p | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age of first nonviolent offense | 6–17 | 135 | 12.8 (2.25) | 11 | 7–17 | 187 | 13.6 (1.98) | 54 | 10.47 | .001 | |||
| Age of first violent behavior | 4–19 | 128 | 13.8 (2.55) | 18 | 6–18 | 168 | 14.1 (2.00) | 63 | .90 | .343 | |||
| Domain 2. Upbringing and environment | Min–max | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | χ2 | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Out of home placement (due to self) | 0–1 | 145 | 77.2 | n/a | 22.8 | 1 | 241 | 77.2 | n/a | 22.8 | – | .00 | 1.000 |
| Out of home placement (due to parents) | 0–1 | 145 | 89.7 | n/a | 10.3 | 1 | 241 | 92.5 | n/a | 7.5 | – | .96 | .328 |
| Early age of onset of problem behavior | 0–2 | 144 | 0.0 | 53.5 | 46.5 | 2 | 240 | 4.2 | 65.8 | 30.0 | 1 | 15.04 | .001 |
| Availability and accessibility of parents | 0–2 | 145 | 30.3 | 46.2 | 23.4 | 1 | 235 | 28.5 | 53.6 | 17.9 | 6 | 2.47 | .291 |
| Adoption problems | 0–2 | 146 | 97.3 | 2.1 | 0.7 | – | 240 | 94.6 | 5.0 | 0.4 | 1 | 2.42 | .299 |
| Peer rejection | 0–2 | 136 | 68.4 | 24.3 | 7.4 | 10 | 212 | 67.9 | 25.5 | 6.6 | 29 | .19 | .943 |
| (inconsistent) Parenting skills | 0–2 | 140 | 5.7 | 35.0 | 59.3 | 6 | 227 | 15.0 | 42.3 | 42.7 | 14 | 12.50 | .002 |
| Authority problems | 0–2 | 143 | 11.9 | 41.3 | 46.9 | 3 | 228 | 18.4 | 45.6 | 36.0 | 13 | 5.39 | .068 |
| Involvement with criminal peers | 0–2 | 143 | 2.8 | 42.7 | 54.5 | 3 | 218 | 40.4 | 42.2 | 17.4 | 23 | 84.85 | < .001 |
| Criminal family members | 0–2 | 137 | 32.1 | 13.9 | 54.0 | 9 | 216 | 68.1 | 11.1 | 20.8 | 25 | 47.91 | < .001 |
| Physical abuse by parents | 0–2 | 127 | 53.5 | 22.8 | 23.6 | 19 | 206 | 55.8 | 22.3 | 21.8 | 35 | .19 | .908 |
| Physical abuse by others | 0–2 | 141 | 82.3 | 13.5 | 4.3 | 5 | 234 | 73.9 | 19.2 | 6.8 | 7 | 3.50 | .174 |
| Neglect | 0–2 | 137 | 64.2 | 24.1 | 11.7 | 9 | 226 | 72.6 | 19.9 | 7.5 | 15 | 3.17 | .205 |
| Sexual abuse by parents | 0–2 | 142 | 100.0 | – | – | 4 | 237 | 99.2 | – | 0.8 | 4 | .13 | .715 |
| Sexual abuse by others | 0–2 | 142 | 95.8 | 2.8 | 1.4 | 4 | 237 | 97.5 | 0.8 | 1.7 | 4 | 2.17 | .339 |
| Domestic violence | 0–2 | 112 | 58.9 | 15.2 | 25.9 | 36 | 200 | 66.0 | 8.5 | 25.5 | 41 | 3.51 | .173 |
| History of prior youth care | 0–2 | 145 | 3.4 | 15.9 | 80.7 | 1 | 241 | 5.4 | 17.0 | 77.6 | – | .92 | .632 |
| Dysfunctional family (disrupted hierarchy) | 0–2 | 140 | 50.0 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 6 | 222 | 74.3 | 13.1 | 12.6 | 19 | 22.32 | < .001 |
| Escalating family situations | 0–2 | 132 | 81.1 | 11.4 | 7.6 | 14 | 228 | 81.6 | 12.3 | 6.1 | 13 | .32 | .852 |
| Truancy/school drop-out | 0–2 | 141 | 15.6 | 24.1 | 60.3 | 5 | 234 | 13.7 | 19.7 | 66.7 | 7 | 1.60 | .449 |
| Parental substance abuse | 0–2 | 133 | 78.9 | 6.0 | 15.0 | 13 | 212 | 69.8 | 11.3 | 18.9 | 29 | 4.10 | .129 |
| Parental mental health problems | 0–2 | 124 | 77.4 | 12.9 | 9.7 | 22 | 207 | 70.0 | 16.4 | 13.5 | 34 | 2.17 | .339 |
| Parental somatic problems | 0–1 | 114 | 52.6 | n/a | 47.4 | 32 | 217 | 71.9 | n/a | 28.1 | 24 | 11.39 | .001 |
| Learning problems | 0–2 | 139 | 71.2 | 24.5 | 4.3 | 7 | 219 | 75.8 | 19.6 | 4.6 | 22 | 1.16 | .560 |
| Threat to end up in prostitution | 0–2 | 146 | 98.6 | 1.4 | – | – | 238 | 99.6 | 0.4 | – | 3 | .18 | .67 |
| Avoiding supervision/escape | 0–2 | 145 | 17.2 | 77.2 | 5.5 | 1 | 235 | 40.9 | 57.9 | 1.3 | 6 | 26.42 | < .001 |
| Domain 3. Offense situation and drugs | Min–max | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | χ2 | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| During medicine abstinence/psychosis | 0–2 | 143 | 98.6 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 3 | 238 | 100.0 | – | – | 3 | 3.94 | .140 |
| Under influence of alcohol | 0–1 | 100 | 62.0 | n/a | 38.0 | 46 | 218 | 87.2 | n/a | 12.8 | 23 | 24.87 | < .001 |
| Under influence of drugs | 0–1 | 71 | 63.4 | n/a | 36.6 | 75 | 204 | 90.7 | n/a | 9.3 | 37 | 26.73 | < .001 |
| Against familiar person | 0–2 | 140 | 67.1 | 25.0 | 7.9 | 6 | 238 | 79.0 | 13.0 | 8.0 | 3 | 8.90 | .012 |
| Sexually related, in search of a victim | 0–2 | 146 | 99.3 | 0.7 | – | 1 | 240 | 100.0 | – | – | 1 | .06 | .801 |
| Domain 4. Psychological functions | Min–max | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | χ2 | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lack of empathy | 0–2 | 130 | 9.2 | 60.0 | 30.8 | 16 | 196 | 46.4 | 36.2 | 17.3 | 45 | 50.10 | < .001 |
| Impaired conscience development | 0–2 | 134 | 0.7 | 56.0 | 43.3 | 12 | 203 | 18.2 | 65.0 | 16.7 | 38 | 43.77 | < .001 |
| Ego-strength/susceptible (to peers) | 0–2 | 139 | 12.9 | 57.6 | 29.5 | 7 | 183 | 16.9 | 57.4 | 25.7 | 58 | 1.25 | .536 |
| Low impulse control | 0–2 | 131 | 11.5 | 38.2 | 50.4 | 15 | 208 | 22.6 | 49.5 | 27.9 | 43 | 18.88 | < .001 |
| Lack of problem awareness/problem insight | 0–2 | 133 | 2.3 | 48.1 | 49.6 | 13 | 213 | 28.2 | 46.5 | 25.4 | 28 | 44.15 | < .001 |
| Min–max | n | Mean (sd) | n missing | n | Min–max | Mean (sd) | n missing | F | p | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total IQ | 54–121 | 96 | 82.4 (13.8) | 50 | 131 | 51–129 | 87.2 (13.5) | 110 | 6.93 | .009 | |||
| Domain 5. Psychopathology | Min–max | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | χ2 | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Addiction problems: gambling | 0–2 | 128 | 98.4 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 18 | 229 | 98.3 | 1.3 | 0.4 | 12 | .38 | .825 |
| Addiction problems: alcohol | 0–2 | 127 | 66.9 | 27.6 | 5.5 | 19 | 219 | 76.3 | 19.2 | 4.6 | 22 | 3.64 | .162 |
| Addiction problems: drugs | 0–2 | 134 | 26.1 | 61.2 | 12.7 | 13 | 216 | 40.3 | 46.8 | 13.0 | 25 | 8.06 | .018 |
| ADHD/hyperactivity | 0–2 | 141 | 75.9 | 16.3 | 7.8 | 5 | 222 | 86.5 | 7.2 | 6.3 | 19 | 8.11 | .017 |
| Anxiety disorder | 0–2 | 138 | 93.5 | 5.1 | 1.4 | 8 | 233 | 92.7 | 5.6 | 1.7 | 8 | .09 | .958 |
| Depressive disorder | 0–2 | 136 | 85.3 | 14.0 | 0.7 | 10 | 222 | 74.8 | 18.0 | 7.2 | 19 | 9.46 | .009 |
| Neurological problems | 0–2 | 135 | 97.0 | 3.0 | – | 11 | 225 | 96.0 | 3.6 | 0.4 | 16 | 1.04 | .595 |
| Development personality disorder type B | 0–2 | 108 | 25.0 | 28.7 | 46.3 | 48 | 201 | 57.2 | 27.9 | 14.9 | 40 | 42.59 | < .001 |
| Feelings of hostility/agressiveness | 0–2 | 142 | 97.2 | 2.8 | – | 4 | 232 | 98.7 | 0.9 | 0.4 | 9 | 3.00 | .224 |
| Autism spectrum disorder | 0–2 | 144 | 97.2 | 2.1 | 0.7 | 2 | 233 | 94.8 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 8 | 2.10 | .350 |
| Psychotic symptoms | 0–2 | 142 | 95.8 | 3.5 | 0.7 | 4 | 235 | 96.6 | 1.3 | 2.1 | 6 | 3.29 | .193 |
| Sadism | 0–2 | 146 | 94.5 | 5.5 | – | 2 | 237 | 98.7 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 4 | 8.47 | .014 |
| Sexually deviant behavior | 0–2 | 143 | 88.8 | 8.4 | 2.8 | 3 | 227 | 95.6 | 3.1 | 1.3 | 14 | 6.26 | .044 |
| Pedosexual behavior | 0–2 | 146 | 98.6 | 1.4 | – | – | 238 | 100.0 | – | – | 3 | 1.17 | .280 |
| Domain 6. Social and relational | Min–max | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | n | % none | % moderate | % severe | n missing | χ2 | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Negative affect/attitude | 0–2 | 140 | 42.9 | 40.7 | 16.4 | 6 | 225 | 66.7 | 25.8 | 7.6 | 16 | 20.81 | < .001 |
| Emotional support | 0–2 | 136 | 64.7 | 33.1 | 2.2 | 10 | 233 | 70.8 | 24.0 | 5.2 | 8 | 5.00 | .082 |
| Total social network | 0–2 | 142 | 12.0 | 78.9 | 9.2 | 4 | 234 | 45.3 | 50.4 | 4.3 | 7 | 45.14 | < .001 |
| Secundary social network | 0–2 | 140 | 2.1 | 57.1 | 40.7 | 6 | 235 | 28.1 | 51.1 | 20.9 | 6 | 44.94 | < .001 |
| Social skills | 0–2 | 136 | 47.8 | 37.5 | 14.7 | 10 | 217 | 59.0 | 32.7 | 8.3 | 24 | 5.66 | .049 |