Fig. 3

Dynamics of four competing gangs with a strict competitive hierarchy. a Gangs have equal activity spread rates c = 0.4, but different activity cessation rates m = {0.421, 0.176, 0.08, 0.028}. b Gangs have equal activity cessation rates m = 0.3, but different activity spread rates c = {0.375, 0.586, 0.837, 1.05}. c Gangs show a mixture of activity spread and cessation rates c = {0.526, 0.375, 0.22, 0.278} and m = {0.5, 0.3, 0.1, 0.05}. The abundance of gang activity at equilibrium need not reflect gang ability to displace. However, it remains the case that any competitively inferior gang must maintain a higher activity spread rate and/or lower activity cessation rate than their immediate superior to be able to persist